Chapter 2

CHOOSING A GOOD DONKEY

What are the different breeds of donkey ?

In some parts of the world, especially where donkeys are show animals, different breeds have been emphasized: there are black donkeys, white donkeys and spotted donkeys as well as the more familiar grey ones; there are shaggy donkeys and smooth ones; there are mammoth donkeys as big as horses and miniature donkeys not much bigger than dogs - but in most of the developing world, where breeding is difficult to control, natural selection does not usually allow any of the extremes.  By and large, the very small, the very large, the very shaggy and the white and spotted donkeys do not exist where donkeys are kept for work and not for show.  'Pure' breeds as such are not really found in developing countries, and no breeding registers of donkeys are kept.

All the same, donkeys can vary a lot in size, probably representing adaptation to different environments.   The average donkey weighs about 140 kg, and walks at about 0.7 metres per second.

What visible features should a donkey have ?

Some people are puzzled by the 'chestnuts', oval black areas of skin midway up the inside of a donkey's front legs. These are in fact an evolutionary vestige of  'thumbs', possessed by all equines, and do not indicate anything abnormal.

Also characteristic of donkeys, from their remote ancestry, is their 'cross', which is a dark stripe from head to tail down the centre of their backs,with a shorter stripe crossing it at right angles across their shoulders/withers.  In rarer instances, a number of shorter cross stripes can occur behind this one, diminishing in size towards the tail.  These 'crosses' can sometimes be visible even on dark donkeys, seen in a certain light, but on some breeds of donkey they can also be entirely absent.  From a different remote ancestry, many donkeys may also have stripes up their legs.

The American Donkey and Mule Society has put out two charming folk legends about how the donkey got its cross (even though not all donkeys have one, and we know from Egyptian paintings that the cross existed long before the birth of Jesus). The story is told that the little donkey that had been Jesus's mount on Palm Sunday, came to the hill of Calvary. Seeing the tragic event occurring there he wished with all his heart he had been able to carry the cross for Jesus as he was the proper one to carry heavy burdens. The donkey turned his back on the sight, but he could not leave because he wished to stay until all was over because of his love for Jesus. In reward for the loyal and humble love of the little donkey the Lord caused the shadow of the cross to fall across his back and left it there for the donkey to carry forevermore as a sign that the love of God, no matter how humble carries a reward for all to see. And an alternative from Mexico: Maria was holding the baby Jesus before her on the donkey during the flight into Egypt. The baby was still very young, and he wet the back of the donkey where he was sitting.  Because of this, the donkey carries the cross on its back.

Occasionally some genetic throwback shows many more stripes than is common on a donkey.  One might think that a zebra cross is involved, but it is not.  What it does demonstrate is that the donkey is really a north-east African variety of zebra. (Mudenda)

Also characteristic of donkeys, but absent in some breeds, is their white 'pointing', i.e. white areas around the mouth and eyes, inside their ears and under their bellies.

What all donkeys have, in contrast to horses in particular, regardless of breed, is long ears, an upright mane of bristles about 5cm long (though this is a little variable), a tail with a tuft of long hairs only at the end, and a bray.  A mule or hinnie, or a zebra pure or crossbred may have one or more of these, but only a donkey has all.

What is the difference between a donkey and a mule ?

A mule is a donkey-horse hybrid: the mother a horse, the father a donkey.  The disadvantage of size in a donkey can be overcome if mules are bred.  Mules are just about as strong as horses, but have the disease resistance and willingness to work that donkeys have.  The great disadvantage of mules is that they are not fertile, and only extremely rarely can breed further.  This is because horses and donkeys have different numbers of chromosomes.  All the same, the male mule behaves like a fully sexed stallion unless castrated, and the female comes on heat.

What does one need to look for in a donkey ?

The most important thing to look for, when buying a donkey, is the donkey’s friend.  Donkeys must be bought as pairs of friends, as otherwise many problems can be caused.  Also, a young donkey should not be separated from its mother before it is at least a year old.  Ways of judging a donkey’s age are considered later.

However, farmers also need some guidelines for the purchase of new donkeys and in deciding which of the males should not be castrated.  They may also need to decide which of their donkeys may be used for which purpose.

Since all donkeys are working animals, most of them are expected to work at more than one kind of task, and training needs to start at a very early stage (before many of the donkey's characteristics can easily be detected), this process of selection does not concern deciding which donkeys must be trained.  Up to a point, they all must be.

It is the needs of the user which must therefore decide what characteristics are most desirable and what further training the donkey should be given.  Some of the characteristics mentioned here, such as speed and obedience, are often the outcome of training before the donkey is old enough to be used.

To some extent, a donkey will select itself.  An owner will often know what kind of work his or her donkey will like doing best and be most good at.  A buyer should not choose a donkey until it can be seen regularly in use (Caveat emptor !)

Not to be forgotten, when a donkey is bought, is its name.  If the previous owner has no name for the donkey, then this indicates that the donkey has probably not received good treatment, and has certainly not received good training.  As a buyer, you will need to use the donkey’s original name so as to establish a good relationship with it.

A campaign is currently under way to ensure the regular showing and judging of donkeys in agricultural shows and field days in Africa, for the purpose of awarding prizes and thus ensuring that users care for and value their donkeys bit more highly than hitherto.  To this end some judging criteria have been drawn up.

This list is just a suggestion; application and practice will teach judges possibly better criteria to aim for.

No donkey can be perfect, and some characteristics on this list may be unobtainable.   For instance, a big donkey is not necessarily a fast one.  If a donkey is desired to be both big and fast, some compromise may have to be made.

It must also be remembered that, in marginal environments, donkeys tend to be small.  This is because smaller donkeys survive better where there is little to eat and drink.  Natural selection has chosen the most suitable size.

How can a donkey’s weight be measured ?

It is sometimes necessary (especially when estimating dosages for medication, but also when trying to estimate a donkey’s capacity for carrying weights, to be able to judge the body weight of a donkey.

Unfortunately, there is little agreement as to how this can best be done, and much would also depend on the donkey’s general condition.  Is it too thin ?  Is it too fat ? 

The Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine (CTVM) at the University of Edinburgh (see reading list: Pearson & Ouassat 2000) has produced a booklet to enable practitioners to judge the body condition of donkeys, but in fact there is little more to be learned than common sense will tell one.  Any animal is too thin when its ribs are very visible, just as an animal is too fat when its ribs cannot be felt through its flesh. An overweight donkey also has a roll of flesh on its neck, which slips sideways. 

Both the CTVM  and the Donkey Sanctuary in England have also produced ‘nomograms’ from which weight does not need to be calculated, but only measured on a chart once certain dimensions have been measured on the donkey in question.  Both are reproduced here; THE DONKEY SANCTUARY FORMULA APPLIED: c is discerned by joining a and b by a straight line.

THE CTVM FORMULA APPLIED for use in the same way as the Donkey Sanctuary method; ‘length’ is to be measured here from ‘point of rump’ to elbow as in the drawing. Using a slightly different formula, the Donkey Sanctuary also gives a weight table for donkeys under 2 years, using heart girth only; this is an abstract: HEART GIRTH cm             75      80      85      90      95      100 WEIGHT kg                      46      55      65      76      88         102

What else needs to be considered when choosing a donkey ?

This has already been mentioned, but it cannot be repeated too often.  Bearing in mind that donkeys separated from their friends are liable to suffer and, at the very least, give trouble, it is wise to choose donkeys in pairs, i.e. pairs of friends.

If breeding is to be considered, then the matter of gender should also be taken into account, and if breeding is not desirable, gender is still important, as males will have to be castrated and females kept with the possibility of isolation from males – see further discussion of these things below.

When a female is chosen, it is also important to know whether or not she is rearing a foal, often detectable by the fullness of her udder.  If she is still nursing, she should not be separated from her foal before it is about a year old, and certainly not before she has weaned it herself - otherwise both health and behavioural problems might be caused in both mother and foal.

SOME WAYS OF JUDGING A DONKEY'S PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS SIZE/WEIGHT A donkey's weight may be estimated from measuring its girth and height (see illustration), and then using one of the ‘nomograms’ reproduced here to convert cm to kg. More than 250 kg would be LARGE, 150-250 kg would be MEDIUM, and less than 150 kg SMALL. CHEST The width of a hand should be able to fit between a donkey's front legs where they meet the chest, from the time the donkey is about a year old.  More important, though, is the distance between the bottom of the neck and the top of the legs.  This should also be at least the width of a hand. BACK The line of the backbone should be level between the shoulders/withers and rump/crupper.  A slight sag just behind the withers or just in front of the crupper is acceptable, especially in a young donkey.  LEGS Seen from front, back or sides (in the case of front legs; for back legs, only from the back for the whole leg, otherwise only for the bottom part of the leg), the legs should be straight and as nearly as possible perpendicular to the ground.  Thick legs are well-muscled ones.  In a baby, large knees are an indication of future thickness, and small knees are an indication of future thin legs.  But even in a large-kneed baby, knees should not touch. FEET/HOOFS  (see diagrams below) Unless the sole of a donkey's hoof is concave underneath, i.e. only the front part and the edges are touching the ground, the donkey will not be walking properly.  The shape should be nearly as round as possible, and the frog etc. inside (see diagram) symmetrical in shape, and all parts clean and hard, not crumbly.  The grooves should not be clogged.  For an adult donkey, the average measurement from one side of a hoof to another is about 5 cm, but this depends on the donkey's size and is best judged by eye for good proportionality. The ANGLE of the foot with respect to its leg on a donkey makes a big difference to the donkey's ability to take loads and move with agility.  To some extent the angle can be controlled by the care given to a donkey's feet.  Seen from the side, the angle that the front of the hoof makes with the ground should be about 60 degrees from the horizontal in the case of the back legs, and a little more in the case of the front legs.  In an adult donkey, the back of the hoof should rise at least 2 cm above the collar of hair surrounding the top of the hoof. EYESIGHT Donkeys on the whole have rather poor eyesight.  However, if a donkey is known to be awake and reacts to movement coming from the rear and on each side of it, and at a distance of about 10 metres, then its vision can be considered good.  Close examination of the eyes should also be made. From some angles they may look slightly opaque, but this should not be the case from all angles.

WHAT A DONKEY HOOF SHOULD

LOOK LIKE UNDERNEATH

When clean, all these should be visible

HOOF AND BONES,

SHOWING BEST ANGLES

AND DIMENSIONS

What difference does a donkey's sex/gender make to its work ?

The best and most valuable donkey is one that has all the desirable characteristics for its job (or jobs), with only the possibility of old age and disease to change them.  If it is a fully sexed adult, however, its reproductive hormones can change its behaviour in undesirable ways.

FEMALES (or Mares or Jennies)

Female donkeys, when on heat, will forget their work and friends and follow - often actually pursue - male donkeys of their fancy.  Even if there are no males around, they will be restless and disobedient for several days at a time, about once every two months until finally and successfully impregnated.  Females, especially the younger and older ones, which are still suckling their young do not seem to fall pregnant very easily, even though they may come on heat, so one to two years can elapse between deliveries.

It is difficult to know when a female donkey is pregnant.  Towards the end of her pregnancy, which is 10-14 months long, she will be much more docile than normal, but if her pregnancy is so far advanced that it is obvious, then she should not be used for work, as this can threaten the life of the foetus.  Once the mother has given birth, she may anyway be impossible to use for several weeks, as she will be too busy defending and feeding her baby.

A mother donkey should not be used for work until her baby is about three months old, and even after that there should be plenty of time for the baby to suckle its mother's milk.  The baby will grow into a better donkey the longer it is allowed to suckle, but if the mother is working, then she needs supplementary feeding (see section on 'Keeping donkeys').

MALES (or Stallions or Jacks)

Fully male donkeys (‘intact’ with testicles) become difficult to control when they are anywhere near a female in oestrus: they may leave their work and their friends to pursue her.  In addition, dominance over other fully-sexed males becomes important to them, and they can engage in quite damaging fights with each other.  They are also a danger to very young donkeys who are still with their mothers; the males resent their presence and can attack them, by biting and kicking.  In this way, potentially useful donkeys can be ruined.

CASTRATED MALES (Gelded Jacks or Geldings)

It is obvious, therefore, that a castrated male donkey is the best type to have.  It is not noticeably true that castration itself changes a donkey's characteristics to being stouter in shape and slower in behaviour, although many people believe so.  There may be some increase in fat, which can protect the donkey from some harness sores.  Also, a castrated donkey is believed to use less energy than an intact stallion, while still producing the same amount of work.  Of course, less sexual excitement contributes to a reduction in excitability, but a castrated donkey can still be a very alert and responsive donkey, and will be more willing to work.

While a castrated donkey is certainly less sexually aggressive than one not castrated, it still seems to engage in most of the fun, including mounting and penetrating mares on heat.

The only thing a castrated donkey cannot do, unfortunately, is reproduce its own good characteristics through breeding.  Therefore it is necessary, in a community of donkeys, to choose about one out of every twenty males to remain uncastrated.  In making this choice, the community of donkey owners must be very sure that it is preserving the most desirable characteristics possible.  The owner of a donkey left uncastrated may well be considered responsible for the damage the donkey does, and also for the characteristics of its offspring, so the selection of a male donkey to be left intact should be a matter for the whole community, and not just an individual owner.

HOW TO DISCERN THE SEX OF A DONKEY Different to so many other animals in so many ways, donkeys also keep their sex well hidden from the eye.  For a human to identify the sex of a donkey, especially a baby donkey, it is often necessary to slide a hand along the rear of its belly and feel with fingers.  The presence of the umbilical cord might confuse things, however.  For female foals and older donkeys it is enough to lift the tail and look; however, doing such intimate things within reach of an adult donkey's rear hoofs may be a bit of a risk !  Luckily donkeys lift their tails to flick at flies, to defecate and urinate (and also when they are a bit excited), so if one is in the right position at the right time, and not too far away, one can do a bit of detecting then. One of the difficulties is that male donkeys, which keep their penises retracted when not in use, have on the outside of their penis sheath two little protrusions, like nipples, and these are in exactly the same position between their back legs as a female's udder, and a female udder, with two nipples, is also pretty small on a donkey, even when lactating. FEMALE  (mare, jenny, jennet) A donkey's udder, with only two teats, is well hidden between the back legs.  It cannot easily be seen within a baby's fluffy coat, although it can be felt.  An alternative is to observe from behind when the tail is lifted: if a two-stage slit can be seen below the round anus-hole, then the animal is female. MALE (stallion, jack) A male donkey's penis sheath, although usually withdrawn close to the body, is in much the same position as a female's udder, and therefore also difficult to see clearly on a foal.  Also, it has two nipple-like projections which can be confusing.  The scrotum only drops and becomes visible when the young male donkey (colt) is about one and a half to two years old.  However, male donkeys extend their penises when they urinate, and this makes their sex easy to assess.  As males grow older, also, more of the penis in its sheath becomes visible from a distance. CASTRATED MALE (gelding)                                                                If over 2 years old, and the scrotum is not visible, but the donkey is a male, then it is probably castrated.

How can a donkey's temperament be judged ?

Apart from what is mentioned in the list of criteria above, a donkey's temperament can often be judged by the way its owner handles it, so good opportunities to observe this are necessary.  Temperament can also be judged to some extent by the donkey's own body language.  A donkey with its ears pointed forward is interested in what is happening and willing to participate.  A donkey with its ears back is frightened, angry or too excited and can easily behave badly.  A donkey with its ears back a lot of the time can be said to have an ill temper.  Training may change it, but not necessarily.  Angry twitching of the tail is another sign of uncertain bad temper, but if a lot of flies are around, a donkey will need to twitch its tail a lot, so cannot fairly be judged on this.  A donkey with its ears down, and usually its head down too, is feeling depressed and unwell.  If it is seen like this a lot of the time, then something is probably seriously wrong with it (further signs of ill health are discussed later).

Again it must be repeated that a donkey's relationship with its particular friend should not be forgotten.  However well suited for a job, a donkey may not perform it well if it feels that the job separates it from its friend.  Since donkeys often work in pairs, they should if possible be chosen in pairs - pairs of friends - and that way they will do better work.  It will also become apparent in what order and on what side a donkey prefers to work – i.e. which donkey is to go in front, which on the left, etc.  Donkeys behave better when their preferences are allowed.

Thus a donkey's relationship with other donkeys with which it works also needs to be observed, especially in the context of team work.  In a group of donkeys there will always be at least one which is trying to be leader, with or without the co-operation of the others.  Some will be willing to take rear place, others will always want to be in front.  The handler of a team of donkeys needs to know not only which donkeys are stronger and which are weaker physically, but also which donkeys have ambitions to be leader, and how the situation is to be resolved, usually by the donkeys themselves.

Donkeys well accustomed to each other will have their own order of working, and it is better for a user not to interfere with this.  But when a new donkey is to be introduced to a group, it is as well to know whether it is going to be ambitious, or content to be a follower.  This has very little reference to the gender of the donkey: many female donkeys are leaders.

WAYS OF JUDGING A DONKEY'S TEMPERAMENT A donkey with a CALM temperament would, in an open field, allow a strange human (or donkey) to come quite close before moving away, and when it moves, it will move slowly. A RESPONSIVE donkey will be very watchful and, although allowing a stranger to come quite close in an open field, will be prompt-t in backing away from any strange movement. An EXCITABLE donkey will run, probably kicking its heels in the air, when seeing a stranger in an open field. A donkey is OBEDIENT is it knows the commands, responds to them quickly and does not need to have them repeated. Moving 1 km in under 5 minutes is FAST for a donkey, and it cannot be expected to go much further than 1 km at this speed. A donkey that walks more slowly than a human being is TOO SLOW. A donkey is AGILE if it can turn in a space only a little wider than itself and climb up and down steps at least 50 cm high; if it cannot do these things, it is CLUMSY.

What is the best kind of donkey for carrying loads ?

Strength of back and legs are more important in carrying than in other kinds of work, because the animal must not stumble.  The whole weight of the load is moved by the donkey's small feet.  Therefore good physical characteristics would be large size, straight back, straight legs, large, well-angled and concave feet and good eyesight.

Although a calm temperament might seem desirable, as nobody wants a donkey with a load on its back to run in fright, there is also the thought that, if such a donkey is regularly travelling in dangerous situations – where, for instance, there might be wild animals – then a quick response to danger can be an advantage after all. 

Therefore good behavioural characteristics would be a responsive temperament, prompt obedience and fast speed.  Another desirable characteristic may be nimbleness, in negotiating narrow paths and rocks.

What would be the best kind of donkey for riding ?

The only difference between a donkey which is ridden by a person and one which is carrying a load, is that the desirable characteristics should become more important.  Stumbling and running away are even less to be desired; but alertness, agility and prompt obedience to commands are paramount.

- and/or for agricultural work ?

Since all field operations require the strength to pull, and the pulling must be done by the chest or adjacent shoulders (depending on the type of harness), with the legs providing the power and the back taking the vertical force, obvious physical characteristics here would be large size, wide and deep chest, straight back, straight and well-muscled legs.

In addition, the animal's behaviour needs to be considered.  It must have the endurance to pull for as long as possible; to some extent this is determined by its breathing ability and is therefore related to the conformation of its chest.  However, its willingness and patience are also factors, and in addition it must be able to stand still for long periods.

What is the best kind of donkey for pulling carts ?

Since this is also a draft operation, characteristics needed are similar.  However, since the animals will presumably be operating on roads that other vehicles use, a calm and unexcitable temperament is even more important.

Speed also becomes more necessary in pulling carts than it is in field operations, so this can be added as a desirable characteristic.

For how many years can a donkey work ?

Although donkeys should be trained as young as possible, if donkeys do any heavy work before they are three years old, their bones which are still forming and hardening - particularly the backbone - will get twisted into the wrong shape.  This will cause them pain and disablement for the rest of their lives, rendering them less capable of good work.

A donkey cannot be considered mature until it is about 4 years of age.  Mature weight is only reached at about 6 years.  As can be seen from the table below, the adult incisors (front teeth) are not erupted until a donkey is about 3.5 years old.  A donkey can begin to reproduce before then, but this, too, is not desirable.  Any animal which reproduces too young does not reproduce well, and its own health may be threatened.

An animal is too old to work only when it becomes a struggle for that work to be done.  As can be judged from the table below, from about the age of 35, a donkey may have some difficulty eating its normal foods and could need to be fed soft supplements.

Donkeys can work up to about the age of 40 years if they are well cared for, but often it can be expected that disease and/or parasites will shorten the period considerably.  However, a really well cared for donkey can live beyond 60 years, and even towards the end do very light work, such as carrying children or small cans of water.  Donkeys dislike being bored and like to feel useful, even in their old age.

HOW TO JUDGE AGE IN A DONKEY (mainly from the incisor teeth, in the front of its mouth)
Age	Signs
0-1 month	Eruption of temporary teeth; 2 central incisors & 3 molars/back teeth
0-6 months	Donkey's body covered with soft, fluffy coat hairs. No corner incisors.
9 months	Temporary corner incisors erupt (see diagram); they are about the size of a little finger nail, and shell-like, not yet in use, although other temporary incisors showing wear. Baby coat usually completely gone.
1-2 years	Male testicles drop, scrotum visible (usually).
1+ years	Permanent central incisors & 5th molars erupt (see diagram), temporary corner incisors already showing full wear.
2+ years	Permanent central incisors & 5th molars in wear.
3 years	Permanent lateral incisors erupt.
3+ years	Permanent lateral incisors in wear & 3rd molars erupt.
4 years	Permanent corner incisors erupt.
4+ years	Rostral border of permanent corner incisors in wear.
5-10 years	Labial border of permanent corner incisors increasingly in wear (see diagram).
6 years	Incisors oval when seen from top.
7 years	Upper corner incisors' back edge unworn, forming 'hook'.
8 years	Central teeth more triangular, but corner 'hook' nearly gone. Fangholes (dental stars) appear in central incisors, but light colour.
9 years	Tooth alignment longer and more angular, shorter but more exposed near gum.
10 years	Entire labial edge of permanent corner incisors in wear. Maybe in some donkeys, yellow-brown groove outside of upper corner incisors, starting at gum.
11 years	Infundibula of central and middle incisors becoming shallow.
12 years	Fangholes visible in all teeth.
13 years	Shallow V-shape to meeting of upper & lower incisors just discernible. Incisors pronounced triangular shape when seen from top.
14 years	Infundibula further back on teeth and wearing out.
15 years	Noticeable V-shape to meeting of upper & lower (see diagram). Infundibulum starts to disappear in lower central incisors. If groove on upper corner incisors, it is halfway down teeth.
20-21 years to 26 years	Infundibulum disappears in the following order: 1st: lower lateral incisors 2nd: lower corner incisors 3rd: upper lateral incisors 4th: upper corner incisors.
30 years	Upper incisors noticeably shorter than lower incisors. Upper incisors & lower incisors meet at acute angle (see diagram). Dental stars (fangholes) dark and small (see diagram).  Any groove on upper corner incisors now gone.
35-40 years	Upper incisors splayed and loose, or flush with gum.
40+ years	Molars (at back of mouth) become loose.

Bottom teeth shown in plan form, as seen from above

A two-week old foal – a filly, as this one is female.  Three years before she can do the heavy work of a donkey.